Unit –I
Special English
The organs of speech or the speech
mechanism:
It
is necessary that the student of phonetics should have a clear idea of the
structure and speech sounds of the organs of speech. Speech sounds are produced
by certain organs such as tongue, lips, teeth, etc, the most usual source of
energy for our vocal activity is provided by an air stream. Expelled from the
lungs. In English we one or two extra linguistic sound for which we do not require
lung or pulmaric air for their articulation. For example, that we write us tut
–tut is produced without the aid of the lungs. But all the essential sounds of
English need lung air for their production.
When
the air is pushed out, it is called egresive and when it is drawn in, it is
called ingressive.
Most
sounds of most languages in the world are product with a plutonic regressive
air – stream mechanism. The sound producing organs can be classified into two
groups.
Passive articulator
Organs of speech
Active articulator
The organs which are mobile and
flexible are called active articulator
e.
g: lips, tongue
Those one of the active articulator
touches a point of the passive articulator, a sound is produced. The place of
such a contact is called as place or point of articulator
The
roof of the mouth is divided for the purpose of phonetic into three parts
called.
i)
Teeth
ridge
ii)
The
hard palate
iii)
The
soft palate
Teeth ridge:
The
teeth ridge is also called alveolar ridge, it is defined as the part of the
roof of the mouth. Just behind the teeth, this is canvas to the tongue.
Hard plate:
The
front part of the roof of the mouth constitutes the hard palate. And the back
parts the soft palate.
The
place of touch a contact is calked place or point of articulation. The roof of
the mouth is divided for the purpose of phonetic into three parts called i) the
teeth ridge ii) the hard palate and the soft palate.
Teeth ridge:
The
teeth ridge is also called alveolar ridge, it is defined as the part of the
roof of the mouth, just behind the teeth, which is convert to the tongue.
Hard Palate:
The
front part of the roof of the mouth constitutes the hard palate. And the back
parts the soft palate, which is also known as velum. In the soft palate is
lowered, the passages into the noses opened, so the from the lungs will scope
through the nose, sounds during the production of which the air escapes only
through the nose are called nasal sounds.
E.g.: sum,
sun, sung.
At the extremely of the soft plats is
the uvula
Pharynx:
The
pharynx is the cavity situated in the throat immediately behind the mouth.
Below it is larynx, which forms the upper part of wind pipe or trachea. Housed
within the structure from back to front are called vocal curios. They are two
folds of ligament and elastic tissue. This may be brought together or parted.
The opening between the cords is known as the glottis.
When
the vocal cards are brought loosely together. They vibrate by the air pressure
from the lungs. The vocal card vibration is the normal feature of all vowels.
This is known as production of voice or phonation.
Epiglottis:
It
is a cost of tongue situated just above the larger. It products the larynx
during the action of swallowing.
Lips:
Of
the movable parts the lips (constitute the final orifice counter opening)
constitute the mouth caving. The shapes they assume affect very considerably
the shape of the total cavity. So the lips determine the quality of vowels and
certain consonants. The lips may be shut or held apart in various ways. They
can be spread as in /I: / or natural as in /e/, open rounded as annul close
rounded as in /u:/they may be had wide apart without any marked rounding as for
the vowel in card. This is the open position.
Tongue:
The
tongue is extremely mobile. It is capable of assuming variety of positions in
the articulation of both vowels and consonants.
The
part which lies opposite the soft palate is called the back. The part which
lies opposite the hard palate is called the front. The part that lies opposite
the teeth ridge is called the blade. The extremely of the tongue is called the
tip or point or apex. The various parts of the tongue may come into contact
with the roof of the mouth. In the articulation of vowels the tongue tip remains
low behind the lower teeth.
The
front may be highest part as where we say the vowel of him. The back may be
prominent as in the case of the vowel in whom or the whole surface may be
relatively low and flat as in the case of vowel in ah.
********************
English speech sounds:
The
44 sounds are classified into two major categories – vowels and consonants.
There are twenty vowels and 24 consonants. The two vowels are again decided
into twelve pure vowels and eight diphthongs.
English speech sounds
44
Vowels consonants
20 
24
24
Pure vowels Diphthongs
12 8
1. Plosives: corrsonants according to the manner of articulation
There
are six plosive consonants in English. There are sounds produced by means of a
complete closure of the air passage. This is after words released suddenly.
When
the lips are opened, the air suddenly escapes from the mouth making an
explosive sound.
/p/ - /b/ Push
– bush
/k/ - /g/ Cold
– Gold
/t/ - /d/ Tense
– Dense
Fricatives:
This
is a group of sine sounds. There are the sounds produced by mar rowing the air
passage to such an extent that the air in escaping produces audible friction.
/f/
-
Phone, four, laugh
/v/
- verb,
advice, prove
/Q/ - think,
method, north
/J/ - they,
brother, breath
/S/ - Cycle,
cost, price
/Z/ - Zip,
Razor, Price
/S/ - Ship,
machine
/Ǝ/ - leisure,
measure, treasure
/w/ - high, behave.
Of these
sound /h/ does not occur at the end of words. Of this nice sounds. /3/ is a
rare sound.
Affricates:
There are the sounds produced by means
of a complete closure of the air passage which is after word released slowly.
/ts/ and /d3/ - voiced
/ts/ chain, teacher, branch
/d3/ - join, major, orange.
Nasals:
There are there nasal sounds. The
sounds are produced by complete closure in the mouth. Which the nasal passage
is open.
The back of the tongue raised towards
the soft palate. The air passes through nose. The vocal cord vibrates.
/m/ /n/ /n/
Sum sun sing
Lateral:
The tip of the tongue is rolled in the
production of /l/ sound.
Life, Village.
Bell
Semi – vowels: or
Approximants
In the production of semi vowel, the
tongue begins in the position of a vowel, but without remaining in that
position for any length of time / moves immediately to the vowel which follows
in the word.
/j/ - yellow,
year, you
/r/ - rat,
route, round
/w/ - well,
wall, wheel.
The vowels
There are 12 vowels – for easy understanding we shall see seven vowels
similar to the vowel sound in Yamhill.
1. / Λ / - cup. /k ΛP/
Bun - /b Λ n/ put - //PΛt)
Cut - /k Λt/ gun - /k Λ m /
2. /a:/
Arm - /a:m/ calm
- /ka:m/
Ask - /a:sk/
3. /i/
Ink, ill, ink, dig, fin
4. /I:/ - this is a long vowel
/i:/ - lagle /i:kl/east, eat
5. /U/
Cook - /cuk/ book - /buk/
6. /Ui/ - blue, cool, moon
- /blu:/ /Ku:l/, /mu:n)
7. /e/ - egg
Jet - /d3et/
Spell - /spell
8. X - /mxn/, /Kxn/, /rxn/
9. /3:/ as in words like
Bird - /b3:d/ verb - /v3:b/
Girl - /g3:l/
10.
/2/ - this is the shortest vowel in English. This is called murmur
vowel. It is not pronounced strongly about, ago, alone.
11. /d/ as in
On, orange, doctor.
12. /c: / as in
All, /c:i/, call - /kc:1)
Walk.
Diphthongs
There are s diphthongs for lazy understanding
Are put into 3 groups
Group I Group
II Group III
Ending with ending
with ending with
/ Ə / /i/ /u/
/i Ə / /ei/
/ Ə u/
/e Ə / / Ə j/ /au/
/U Ə / / Ə i/
Vowels
The cardinal vowel scale
The
chief organs concerned in the modifying the shape of the passage. Are the
tongue and the helps. Vowels are classified for linguistic purpose according to
the position of the tongue. Some vowels have a clear and a well defined quality
others have a more obscure sound.
Cardinal vowels:
The
vowels of well defined quality are chiefly that in which the tongue is markedly
raised in the front or at the back or is from among these vowels (which are as remote
as possible from neutral position) eight cardinal vowels has been selected.
Description of cardinal vowels:
Front
Central Back
Close
i u
Half close e o
Half openE c
Open a a
Diagram illustrating the tongue position
Cardinal vowel scale:
A
scale of eight primary cardinal vowels. Was set up donated by the following
numbers and symbols.
i a e a a Э o u
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Cardinal no 1:
i)
Is the sound in which the raising of the
tongue is as for forward as possible and a high as possible, the lips being
special. It is a close vowel.
ii)
Vowel no 5, //a/:
It
is a sound in which the back of the tongue is lowered as for as possible. The
lips are not rounded it is an open knawel.
Coordinal vowels 2, 3, 4:
(e/ (e/ /a/
There
are the vowels of the front series. They from an acoustic sequence between the
vowels. One and five the degrees of acrostic separation between each vowel and
the next are equal.
Cardinal vowels 6, 7 8:
/c/
/o/ /v/ are vowels of back series chosen so as to continue this series of
acoustically equitant vowels. The front series /i/ /e/ /a/ /d/ and a of the
back series are pronounced with spread of open lips whereas.
The remaining three numbers of back series
/c/ /o/ /v/ have varying degree of lip rounding.
********************
The concept of phoneme and allophone:
The
smallest unit of sound is called phoneme for (ig). In the word ‘king. If we
replace the sound /k/ for any other unit, the meaning entering changes and from
another word (ig) ring, sing, thing, etc.
Phoneme Allophone
/Kn/
K /k/
/Pn/
P /P/
/tn/
t /t/
The word came is pronounced /k n Λ m/ and the cord ‘scum’ is pronounced
/sk Λ m/. a nature
speaker does not perceive /kn/ /k/ as distant sounds. There fore they belong to
the some unit in English. Such a unit is called a phoneme. The member of a
phoneme are called allophones of the phoneme thus /kn/ and /k/ are the
allophones of the phoneme k.
In
the word pit initial – p- sound is aspirated, that is followed by an additional
puff of air. In the word split the /p/ is not aspirated.
This
different pronunciation /p/ in different phoneme contexts. Are called
allophones of /p/.
Phonemic variations:
In
connected speech. Speech organs move from one position. To another. In doing
so, they tend to take short cats. That is to say they modify phonemes drop then
etc.
Such
variation includes assimilation. (b) Elision..(c) liaison & (d) juncture
a) Assimilation:
Assimilation
is a process of replacing a sound by another under the influence of a tired
sound.
For
(e.g.) the word ‘ten’ in the phrase ‘ten men’ the initial sound of ‘ten’ is ‘n’
choice it is pronounced in isolation. The ‘n’ become ‘b’ under the influence of
the initial sound of following word ‘men’ in the phrase / thus ‘n’ is replaced
by ‘m’ by the special English.
Tone – group:
When
we talk we don’t talk word by word. But in groups words, we break after a group
for a split second and then continue with the group of word. This short
interval or stop is called ‘pause’. This groups of words followed by pauses are
called tone – group of senesce groups. To mark a tone – group we use an oblique
line/ I /.
E
g:
One
of the chief characterized of the human being / is his ability to communicate
to him fellows / complicated messages / concerning every aspect of his
activity.
Intonation:
The
third major element of speech (the first being sounds, the second stress) is
intonation.
When the pitch sizes, we call it
rising intonation and when it falls, we call it falling intonation.
Listen
to this sentence and say it out
Teacher is a friend.
Repeat the sentence:
This falling intonation
We make it with an arrow fencing down
like this
Teacher is a friend.
Now
ask this question:
Is
teacher a friend?
Repeat the question. It is rising
intonation we mark it like this.
Is teacher a friend?
We speak several types of sentence using
different intonation partners.
Falling intonation:
Affirmative
and negative: statements get a
falling tone at the end.
My
farming consists of six members
The
class room is not clear.
(ii) All ‘wh’ questions or information question:
Have a falling tone.
Why
did you come late today?
Where
is your new bicycle?
How
will you go him?
(iii) Commands
and introductions:
Write
it down.
Go
straight and term left.
Send it today by registered post.
(iv) Exclamations,
greetings etc.
Pity!
How
beautifully!
Good
morning!
Thank
you!
(v) Question
tags that uniform the statements and do not expect response?
He
can’t swim can he?
It’s
very hot today. Isn’t it?
2) Risking
intonation:
i) Verb questions or yes/no questions should
always have a rising tone at the end.
Can
you side a bicycle?
Did
you get any message?
3) Rising
– Falling intonation.
In
choice question or alternate question each choice has a rising tone but the
last choice has a failing tone.
Do
you like tea, coffee or milk?
Is
it formation pen or a ball point pen?
When
the sentence has a list, all except the final item gets the rising tone and
find item gets the falling tone.
I
like apples, orange, graphs, dates and mangoes.
If there are clauses in a sentence
the initial clause, usually, have the rising tone and the other part of the
sentence has falling tone.
It
I switch on the light, the child will wake up.
Falling – rising tone:
He
is very clever – with a falling tone, mean he exactly mean that.
If
it is said with a falling rising intonation he may. Mean that though the man in
question is clever there is something else that to undesirable about him.
Rhythm:
Rhythm
is nature is any continuous activity. We feel it clearly when we near a good
song. Connected English speech similarly shows a certain rhythm in words,
phrases and sentences with stressed and unstressed syllabus following a rhythm
or a regular pattern of movement the stressed syllables in an English sentence.
Succeed one another at approximately equal distance and at approximately at of
regular intervals of time. Theses are like the beats or pulses in music. The
unstressed syllables are accommodated between the stressed ones in varying
rhythm sequences. Ther are either drawn out or sequenced in, which never is
necessary, so that th stressed syllables appear at equal intervals of time.
This regularity of movement is called the rhythm in an English sentence.
English is therefore called a stress timed language.
E.
g:
I
have often wanted to meet you
It
is very kind of you to ask me
Secondary stress:
Words
of three or more syllables take a stress called the secondary stress in
addition to the primary stress. This normally takes on the first or the second
syllable and in much weaker than he primary stress is shown by a vertical mark
above in front of the stressed syllable and the secondary stress by a mark
belong at the beginning of the stressed syllabus other. Syllables are
unstressed or weak.
E.
g: vegetarian, understanding
International,
independent
Received Pronunciation (R.P)
Phonology:
Every
language has a set of sounds unique and peculiar, to it. The sounds stand for words.
The words stand for objects, ideas, process, etc. English language has its own
system of phonemes or sound system represented by its consonants and vowel
sounds contained in its alphabet. For (e.g.) lion, girl, table, eating etc.
this system of the language is a called phonology (it is a study and science of
sounds and action). In a nut shell the study of speech sounds especially the
history of their changes in a particular language and the lows governing there
is known as phonology.
Definition:
(“The
study of the actual sounds of the language is called phonetics and the way in
which these sounds are systematically organized is called phonology”.)
Morphology:
A
meaningful word or part of a word that cannot be further fractured or divided
is called morpheme. The study of the morphemes of language and the way in which
they are joined together, to make meaningful words is known as morphology.
Lexis:
Every
language uses words to signed meaning. A word is usually defined as the smallest
meaningful unit of sounds. In modern linguistics the minimum meaningful unit is
called a morpheme. For lg a word meaningful is made up of three meaningful
units or morphemes namely meaning, and full. The others though are carrying. Some
making cannot so stand. The morpheme that can s can stand by itself is called a
free morpheme and the one that cannot called board morpheme.
Unit – I
1)
What
are the elements of English language?
2)
What
is phonetics?
3)
How
are speech sounds produced
4)
Name
two semi – vowels with an example for each
5)
What
are plosives?
6)
What
are called voiced and voiceless sounds?
7)
What
are fricatives?
8)
What
are affricates?
9)
What
are nasals?
10)
What
us lateral
11)
What
is a diphthong?
12)
What
is called murmur vowel
13)
What
is stress?
14)
What
is stressed syllable? Give an example
15)
What
is called pause.
16)
Write
about word formation?
17)
What
is intonation? Give an example falling
18)
Write
a short note on intonation
19)
Write
a short note on rising intonation
20)
What
are pure vowels? Draw the cardinal vowel scale.
21)
What
is phonology?
22)
What
is morphology
23)
What
is grammar?
24)
What
is rhythm?
25)
What
is tone group?
26)
Define
secondary stress
27)
Define
R.P
28)
Define
elision and assimilation
29)
Discuss
the sounds of English
30)
Write
about the organs of speech and their functions
31)
Explain
stress, pause intonation with examples. How would they be useful in teaching
oral English in your class room atmosphere?
32)
Write
about the concept of the phoneme and allophones.
33)
What
are walk forms and strong forms? Explain with examples.
34)
Explain
stress and intonation with examples.
35)
How
will you classify consonants according to member of articulation?
36)
Classify
consonants according to the place of articulation
37)
Write
a note on closing diphthongs
38)
Write
a note on entering diphthongs.
Special
English
Unit – I
Stress:
Sounds
group themselves into syllables. In a word. A word has one syllable, or more
theme one syllable. In English words, one of the syllables happens to he main
one. That syllables has to be said with extra force compared to the others.
Such an extra force given extra force is called the stressed syllable. For
example the word “repeat” has too syllables i.e. him and peat out of these two
syllables the second syllables ‘peat’ is stressed. In dictionaries we will
find. The word repeat as repeat this small vertical time before ‘p; is the
stream mark. The syllable following the stress mark should be stressed.
This phenomenon of stress is not
available in our initial languages. If we do not stress the correct syllable of
the word there is a possibility of misunderstanding.
Word correct
stress wrong stress
1. Atlas ‘atlas at’las
2. atmosphere
‘atmosphere at’moshpere
3. develop ‘develop de’ velop
How is it heard:
When wrongly
Stressed
1.
at
last
2.
at
most fear
3.
double
up
Two golden rules for pronouncing a
word accurately referring to the dictionary are
Sound
the symbols correctly
Give stress on the indicated syllable
There are a few stress patterns.
Which would give is an correct stress.
Pattern – I:
Disyllabic
word – where the stress on the second syllabus
A’
ddress be’ gin de’ cide
En’
joy ex’ cept j’ uly
Pattern – II
Tri
syllabic (word with 3 syllable0 where the second syllable is stressed.
Al’ ready a’nother conn’
– tin – ue
Be-gin-ting
Pattern – III:
Four syllable word where the second
is stressed and others unstressed.
Ac –ti- vi- ty au- tho –ri- ty A-
rith – metic
Pattern – 4:
Words
with suffixes where the penultimate syllables is stressed quail – fi – ca –tion
Pub –li-ca-tion
Trans-la-tion
ii) words
ending with-raian:
Vege’
tarian gra’ mmarian
Pattern – IV:
Words
with atress on the final syllable
i) -eer suffix
Engineer
volume ‘teer
Sentence stress:
A
sentence is an utterance made up of several words. It connects words in to
single unit. Connected speech in English in rhythmic. This rhythm the result of
sentences stress. In a sentence all the words are not stressed order that are
important for meaning viz content words liter nouns, adjectives principal verbs
and adverbs are generally stressed. Structured words or grammatical words like
articles, personal pronouns, relative pronouns. Auxiliary verbs, prepositions
and conjunction are generally not stressed.
For (e.g.)
The
watchman has ‘painted the walks’
Bring me a ‘book
The ‘girl of the stage’
Strong and weak from are noticed in
the spoken from of a language. So it is essential for un that we showed realize
their importance. Whether a word is pronounced in the strong way or in the weeklong
depends on the kind of the sentence it occurs.
Here below are given some vary common
worth have strong a work from
Words Strong tom Weak
Pronouns Us / Λ s/ /Əs/ /s/
Me /mi: / /mi/
Who /hu: / /hu/ /u/
Verbs am / æ m/ /Əm/ /m/
Are /a: / /Ə/
Were /wE: / /w/ /wƏ/
Can /k æ n/ /kƏn/ /kn/
Must /mΛst/ /mƏst/ /mƏs/
Proposition to
/tu:/ /tƏ/ /tu/
For
/fƏ: / /fƏ/
At / æ t/ /Ət/
From $rƏm /frƏm/
Conjunction as / æ z/ /Əz/
But /bΛt/ /bƏt/
And / æ nd/ /Ən/
Articles the / æ i: / / æ Ə/
An / æ n/ /Ən/
A /Əi/ /a/
Do /do: / /do/
Spelling rules:
1) One
syllable words with one vowel and ending in a consonant double the consonant
before a suffix beginning with a vowel.
Hit + ing = hitting
Big + er = bigger
Spot + ed = spotted
2) Two
or three syllable words ending in a consonant double the consonant before a
suffix beginning with a vowel when the stress folls on the last syllable.
Begin
+ ing = beginning
Occur
+ ed = occurred
3) Words
ending in ‘l’ pfter a single vowel double the ‘l’ before a suffix beginning
with vowel
Travel
+ ing = traveling
4) Words
ending in a single ‘e’ after a consonant drop the ’e’ before a suffix beginning
with a vowel or consonant.
Write
+ ing = writing
Receive
+ ing = receiving
Due
+ ly = duly
5) Words
ending in –ce or –ge do not drop the ‘e’ before suffix beginning with a or o
Trace
+ able = traceable
Courage
+ ous = courage’s
6) Words
ending in –Ce change e to ‘i’ before -ous
Space
+ ous = spacious
7) When
–fill or fill is added is added to a word the second l in dropped
Beauty
+ full = beautiful
Full
+ fill = fulfill
Place of articulation:
1)
Bilabial
– consonants formed by the action of both the ups. /m/
2)
Labiodentals
– formed by the action of the lower lip against the upper teeth. /f/, /v/
3)
Dental: tip or blade of the tongue and the upper.
Teeth are the places where in produced. /o/,
/s/
4)
Alveolar: formal by the action of the tip of the tongue
against teeth ridge. /t/, d, s, z,
l, n, r.
5)
Palate
– alveolar: formal by the partial
obstruction by the tip or blade of the tongue and back alveolar. /s/, /ts/,
/ds/.
6)
Pleated: formed when the front of the tongue is raised
lowards the hard palate. /j/
7)
Velar: formed when the back of the tongue is
raised towards the soft palate. /k/, /g/
8)
Glottal: formed by the gentle puff of between vocal
cards. /n/
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